Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a critical role in intracellular communication during bacterial infections. Electric vehicles can carry both host and bacterial components that, when taken up by target cells, can induce a protective response in the host or promote the survival and spread of the bacterial pathogen. Some applications of exosomes are used as therapeutic vehicles in infections. The innate immune system plays a crucial role in defending the host against viral and microbial infections.
Exosomes constitute a subset of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that can be released by nearly all cell types. Because of their ability to protect the payload from degradation and prevent the immune system from recognizing and then eliminating them, exosomes efficiently transport functional components to recipient cells. Accumulated evidence has recently demonstrated that exosomes derived from tumor cells, host cells, and even bacteria and parasites mediate communication between the invader and innate immune cells and, therefore, play an irreplaceable role in the dissemination of pathogens and molecules derived from donor cells, modulating the host's innate immune responses. In this review, we describe the current understanding of electric vehicles (focusing primarily on exosomes) and summarize and discuss their crucial roles in determining innate immune responses. In addition, we discuss the potential of using exosomes as biomarkers and cancer vaccines in diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
Extensive evidence indicates that a variety of cells, including stem cells, release exosomes and exert therapeutic properties in viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungal infections, which will be discussed later. The challenges posed by this cell-free treatment, which could be applied as a therapeutic alternative to stem cells for transfer from the laboratory to the bed, were also emphasized. Interleukin-1b (IL-1b), being a serious pro-inflammatory cytokine, increases in the early stages of sepsis and is implicated in the severity and evolution of organ dysfunction. Exosomes also contain mRNA and non-coding RNA (ncRNA), including microRNA (miRNA), small nuclear RNAs (snRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and Y RNA.
In fact, it is an urgent task to comprehensively map the composition of exosomes from different origins, and a great deal of effort is required to achieve a consensus on the biochemical definition and classification of electric vehicle subpopulations and to determine the cellular signals or events that determine their size and charge composition. For example, the ability of electric vehicles to selectively deliver molecules to specific recipient cell types has significant potential for the delivery of small molecules and other therapeutic agents. Currently, there is only one active clinical study (NCT0427698) that explicitly investigates the therapeutic potential of MSC-derived exosomes for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2-associated pneumonia. In addition, the possibility that exosomes elicit an immune response, especially when they come from other species, raises concerns about possible negative immune reactions.
In in vivo studies, M1 macrophage exosomes directly increase the proportion of IFN-gamma and IL-17-producing CD4+ T cells in the lymph nodes and spleen, thus promoting the progression of EAN. After B cell-derived exosomes bind to FDCs, the MHC-II molecules are expressed through a dressing phenomenon on their surface. A study was conducted to develop exosome-based nanovesicles loaded with the antibacterial agent linezolid for use against intracellular infections. of pathogenic bacteria.
In one of the trials, an exosome-based therapeutic drug carrying CD24 effectively completed phase 1 studies. Exosomes derived from tumor-associated macrophages promote gastric cancer cell migration through the transfer of functional apolipoprotein E. Exosomes derived from active T cells increase the expression of ICAM-1 and Mac-1 (macrophage 1 antigen) in monocytes. Mast cell-derived exosomes carry external antigens with the HSP-60 and HSC-70 complexes and can play a variety of roles under different conditions.
